A REVIEW OF THE: MECHANISM OF BIOFILM FORMATION AFFECTING MEDICAL DEVICES

Haider Qassim Raheem

doi:10.61796/ijmi.v3i1.430

Authors

Haider Qassim Raheem
[email protected]
DNA Research Center, University of Babylon Al-Karamah Street-51001, Babylon State, Iraq

Vol. 3 No. 1 (2026): International Journal Multidisciplinary (IJMI)

Articles

January 6, 2026

Downloads

VIEW ARTICLE

Abstract
How to Cite
Metrics
References
License

Objective: Bacterial colonies that live in an exopolysaccharide matrix and adhere to foreign surfaces in a living creature make up the complex biofilm. In therapeutic settings, biofilm often results in nosocomial, persistent infections. Method: This review gives a short account of the ideas underpinning the composition of, production of, and drug-resistant illnesses attributable to biofilm and cutting-edge therapeutic ways to combat and treat biofilm. Results: Antibiotics are insufficient to treat infections caused by biofilm because the bacteria in the biofilm have become resistant to them. Novelty: The use of cutting-edge technologies to handle the challenges posed by biofilm is justified by the high incidence of infections caused by medical devices.

Ali Ahmed Abdul, B. Microbial Biofilms; Properties and Applications in the Environment, Agriculture, and Medicine. CRC Press. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1201/ 9780367415075.

Al-Momani, H., Aolymat, I., Ibrahim, L., Albalawi, H., Al Balawi, D., Albiss, B.A., et al. Low-dose zinc oxide nanoparticles trigger the growth and biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a hormetic response. BMC Microbiol 24. 2024. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/s12866-024-03441-y.

Amaning Danquah, C., Osei-Djarbeng, S., Appiah, T., Duah Boakye, Y., Adu, F. Combating Biofilm and Quorum Sensing: A New Strategy to Fight Infections [Internet]. Bacterial Biofilms. IntechOpen. 2020. https://doi.org/10.5772/ intechopen.89227.

Arciola, C.R., Campoccia, D., Montanaro, L. Implant infections: adhesion, biofilm formation and immune evasion. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 16, 397–409. 2018. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/s41579-018-0019-y.

Bjarnsholt, T., Moser, C., Jensen, P.Ø., Høiby, N., 2011. Biofilm infections. Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6084-9.

Carette, J., Nachtergael, A., Duez, P., El Jaziri, M., Rasamiravaka, T. Natural Compounds Inhibiting Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Formation by Targeting Quorum Sensing Circuitry. IntechOpen. 2020. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90833.

Carpentier, B., Cerf, O. Biofilms and their consequences, with particular reference to hygiene in the food industry. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 75 (6), 499–511. 1993. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1993.tb01587.x.

Ch’ng, J.H., Chong, K.K.L., Lam, L.N., Wong, J.J., Kline, K.A. Biofilm-associated infection by enterococci. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 17, 82–94. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41579-018-0107-z.

Chandel, H., Wang, B., Verma, M.L. Control of biofilm formation during food processing. A Complete Guidebook on Biofilm Study. Elsevier, pp. 199–227. 2022. https:// doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-88480-8.00007-8.

Chmielewsk, R.A.N., Frank, J.F. Biofilm formation and control in food processing facilities. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2, 22–32. 2003.

Bjarnsholt, T.; Ciofu, O.; Molin, S.; Givskov, M.; Hoiby, N. Applying insights from biofilm biology to drug development—Can a new approach be developed? Nat. Rev. Drug. Discov, 12, 791–808. 2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Irie, Y.; Borlee, B.R.; O’Connor, J.R.; Hill, P.J.; Harwood, C.S.; Wozniak, D.J.; Parsek, M.R. Self-produced exopolysaccharide is a signal that stimulates biofilm formation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 20632–20636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Gupta, P.; Sarkar, S.; Das, B.; Bhattacharjee, S.; Tribedi, P. Biofilm, pathogenesis and prevention--a journey to break the wall: A review. Arch. Microbiol. 2016, 198, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Costerton, J.W.; Geesey, G.G.; Cheng, K.J. How bacteria stick. Sci. Am. 1978, 238, 86–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Costerton, J.W.; Stewart, P.S.; Greenberg, E.P. Bacterial biofilms: A common cause of persistent infections. Science 1999, 284, 1318–1322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Rose, J.B. Biofilms: The Good and the Bad. Available online: https://waterandhealth.org/safe-drinking-water/drinking-water/biofilms-good-bad-2/ (accessed on 5 May 2023).

Cochrane, D.M.; Brown, M.R.; Anwar, H.; Weller, P.H.; Lam, K.; Costerton, J.W. Antibody response to Pseudomonas aeruginosa surface protein antigens in a rat model of chronic lung infection. J. Med. Microbiol. 1988, 27, 255–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Donlan, R.M. Biofilms: Microbial life on surfaces. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8, 881–890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Sutherland, I. Biofilm exopolysaccharides: A strong and sticky framework. Microbiology 2001, 147, 3–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Singh, S.; Datta, S.; Narayanan, K.B.; Rajnish, K.N. Bacterial exo-polysaccharides in biofilms: Role in antimicrobial resistance and treatments. J. Genet. Eng. Biotechnol. 2021, 19, 140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Limoli, D.H.; Jones, C.J.; Wozniak, D.J. Bacterial Extracellular Polysaccharides in Biofilm Formation and Function. Microbiol. Spectr. 2015, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Vandana; Das, S. Structural and mechanical characterization of biofilm-associated bacterial polymer in the emulsification of petroleum hydrocarbon. 3 Biotech. 2021, 11, 239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Chen, M.Y.; Lee, D.J.; Tay, J.H.; Show, K.Y. Staining of extracellular polymeric substances and cells in bioaggregates. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2007, 75, 467–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Hussain, M.; Wilcox, M.H.; White, P.J. The slime of coagulase-negative staphylococci: Biochemistry and relation to adherence. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 1993, 10, 191–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Costerton, J.W.; Lewandowski, Z.; Caldwell, D.E.; Korber, D.R.; Lappin-Scott, H.M. Microbial biofilms. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1995, 49, 711–745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Stoodley, P.; Lewandowski, Z.; Boyle, J.D.; Lappin-Scott, H.M. Oscillation characteristics of biofilm streamers in turbulent flowing water as related to drag and pressure drop. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 1998, 57, 536–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Chen, M.; Yu, Q.; Sun, H. Novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of biofilm related infections. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013, 14, 18488–18501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Paharik, A.E.; Horswill, A.R. The Staphylococcal Biofilm: Adhesins, Regulation, and Host Response. Microbiol. Spectr. 2016, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Zaborowska, M.; Tillander, J.; Branemark, R.; Hagberg, L.; Thomsen, P.; Trobos, M. Biofilm formation and antimicrobial susceptibility of staphylococci and enterococci from osteomyelitis associated with percutaneous orthopaedic implants. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 2017, 105, 2630–2640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Khan, M.S.; ur Rehman, S.; Ali, M.A.; Sultan, B.; Sultan, S. Infection in orthopedic implant surgery, its risk factors and outcome. J. Ayub Med. Coll. Abbottabad 2008, 20, 23–25. [Google Scholar]

Cerca, N.; Pier, G.B.; Vilanova, M.; Oliveira, R.; Azeredo, J. Quantitative analysis of adhesion and biofilm formation on hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces of clinical isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Res. Microbiol. 2005, 156, 506–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Rahim, M.I.; Rohde, M.; Rais, B.; Seitz, J.M.; Mueller, P.P. Susceptibility of metallic magnesium implants to bacterial biofilm infections. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2016, 104, 1489–1499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Koseki, H.; Yonekura, A.; Shida, T.; Yoda, I.; Horiuchi, H.; Morinaga, Y.; Yanagihara, K.; Sakoda, H.; Osaki, M.; Tomita, M. Early staphylococcal biofilm formation on solid orthopaedic implant materials: In vitro study. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e107588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Glage, S.; Paret, S.; Winkel, A.; Stiesch, M.; Bleich, A.; Krauss, J.K.; Schwabe, K. A new model for biofilm formation and inflammatory tissue reaction: Intraoperative infection of a cranial implant with Staphylococcus aureus in rats. Acta Neurochir. 2017, 159, 1747–1756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Oliveira, W.F.; Silva, P.M.S.; Silva, R.C.S.; Silva, G.M.M.; Machado, G.; Coelho, L.; Correia, M.T.S. Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis infections on implants. J. Hosp. Infect. 2018, 98, 111–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Zheng, Y.; He, L.; Asiamah, T.K.; Otto, M. Colonization of medical devices by staphylococci. Environ. Microbiol. 2018, 20, 3141–3153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Bjarnsholt, T. The role of bacterial biofilms in chronic infections. APMIS Suppl. 2013, 121, 1–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Joo, H.S.; Otto, M. Molecular basis of in vivo biofilm formation by bacterial pathogens. Chem. Biol. 2012, 19, 1503–1513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Veerachamy, S.; Yarlagadda, T.; Manivasagam, G.; Yarlagadda, P.K. Bacterial adherence and biofilm formation on medical implants: A review. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. H 2014, 228, 1083–1099. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Chao, Y.; Marks, L.R.; Pettigrew, M.M.; Hakansson, A.P. Streptococcus pneumoniae biofilm formation and dispersion during colonization and disease. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2014, 4, 194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Buttner, H.; Mack, D.; Rohde, H. Structural basis of Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation: Mechanisms and molecular interactions. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2015, 5, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Wassmann, T.; Kreis, S.; Behr, M.; Buergers, R. The influence of surface texture and wettability on initial bacterial adhesion on titanium and zirconium oxide dental implants. Int. J. Implant. Dent. 2017, 3, 32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Sonderholm, M.; Bjarnsholt, T.; Alhede, M.; Kolpen, M.; Jensen, P.O.; Kuhl, M.; Kragh, K.N. The Consequences of Being in an Infectious Biofilm: Microenvironmental Conditions Governing Antibiotic Tolerance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 2688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Lebeaux, D.; Chauhan, A.; Rendueles, O.; Beloin, C. From in vitro to in vivo Models of Bacterial Biofilm-Related Infections. Pathogens 2013, 2, 288–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Speziale, P.; Geoghegan, J.A. Biofilm formation by staphylococci and streptococci: Structural, functional, and regulatory aspects and implications for pathogenesis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2015, 5, 31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Davey, M.E.; O’Toole, G.A. Microbial biofilms: From ecology to molecular genetics. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2000, 64, 847–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Vuong, C.; Voyich, J.M.; Fischer, E.R.; Braughton, K.R.; Whitney, A.R.; DeLeo, F.R.; Otto, M. Polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) protects Staphylococcus epidermidis against major components of the human innate immune system. Cell. Microbiol. 2004, 6, 269–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Oppenheimer-Shaanan, Y.; Steinberg, N.; Kolodkin-Gal, I. Small molecules are natural triggers for the disassembly of biofilms. Trends Microbiol. 2013, 21, 594–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Grande, R.; Nistico, L.; Sambanthamoorthy, K.; Longwell, M.; Iannitelli, A.; Cellini, L.; Di Stefano, A.; Hall Stoodley, L.; Stoodley, P. Temporal expression of agrB, cidA, and alsS in the early development of Staphylococcus aureus UAMS-1 biofilm formation and the structural role of extracellular DNA and carbohydrates. Pathog. Dis. 2014, 70, 414–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Karatan, E.; Watnick, P. Signals, regulatory networks, and materials that build and break bacterial biofilms. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2009, 73, 310–347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

He, Z.; Liang, J.; Tang, Z.; Ma, R.; Peng, H.; Huang, Z. Role of the luxS gene in initial biofilm formation by Streptococcus mutans. J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2015, 25, 60–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Winzer, K.; Hardie, K.R.; Williams, P. Bacterial cell-to-cell communication: Sorry, can’t talk now—Gone to lunch! Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2002, 5, 216–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Brackman, G.; Cos, P.; Maes, L.; Nelis, H.J.; Coenye, T. Quorum sensing inhibitors increase the susceptibility of bacterial biofilms to antibiotics in vitro and in vivo. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2011, 55, 2655–2661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Auinger, P.; Lanphear, B.P.; Kalkwarf, H.J.; Mansour, M.E. Trends in otitis media among children in the United States. Pediatrics 2003, 112, 514–520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Hoiby, N.; Ciofu, O.; Bjarnsholt, T. Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms in cystic fibrosis. Future Microbiol. 2010, 5, 1663–1674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Yoon, B.I.; Han, D.S.; Ha, U.S.; Lee, S.J.; Sohn, D.W.; Kim, H.W.; Han, C.H.; Cho, Y.H. Clinical courses following acute bacterial prostatitis. Prostate Int. 2013, 1, 89–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Olson, P.D.; Hunstad, D.A. Subversion of Host Innate Immunity by Uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Pathogens 2016, 5, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Diaz, R.R.; Picciafuoco, S.; Paraje, M.G.; Villegas, N.A.; Miranda, J.A.; Albesa, I.; Cremonezzi, D.; Commisso, R.; Paglini-Oliva, P. Relevance of biofilms in pediatric tonsillar disease. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2011, 30, 1503–1509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Jamal, M.; Ahmad, W.; Andleeb, S.; Jalil, F.; Imran, M.; Nawaz, M.A.; Hussain, T.; Ali, M.; Rafiq, M.; Kamil, M.A. Bacterial biofilm and associated infections. J. Chin. Med. Assoc. 2018, 81, 7–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Lamont, R.J.; Jenkinson, H.F. Life below the gum line: Pathogenic mechanisms of Porphyromonas gingivalis. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 1998, 62, 1244–1263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Gu, H.; Hou, S.; Yongyat, C.; De Tore, S.; Ren, D. Patterned biofilm formation reveals a mechanism for structural heterogeneity in bacterial biofilms. Langmuir 2013, 29, 11145–11153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Juhlin, A.; Svensson, S.; Thomsen, P.; Trobos, M. Staphylococcal biofilm gene expression on biomaterials—A methodological study. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2017, 105, 3400–3412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Klausen, M.; Aaes-Jorgensen, A.; Molin, S.; Tolker-Nielsen, T. Involvement of bacterial migration in the development of complex multicellular structures in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Mol. Microbiol. 2003, 50, 61–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Sauer, K.; Camper, A.K.; Ehrlich, G.D.; Costerton, J.W.; Davies, D.G. Pseudomonas aeruginosa displays multiple phenotypes during development as a biofilm. J. Bacteriol. 2002, 184, 1140–1154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

von Eiff, C.; Jansen, B.; Kohnen, W.; Becker, K. Infections associated with medical devices: Pathogenesis, management and prophylaxis. Drugs 2005, 65, 179–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

An, Y.H.; Dickinson, R.B.; Doyle, R.J. Mechanisms of Bacterial Adhesion and Pathogenesis of Implant and Tissue Infections; An, Y.H., Friedman, R.J., Eds.; Humana Press: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]

Leung, J.W.; Liu, Y.L.; Desta, T.; Libby, E.; Inciardi, J.F.; Lam, K. Is there a synergistic effect between mixed bacterial infection in biofilm formation on biliary stents? Gastrointest. Endosc. 1998, 48, 250–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Merritt, K.; An, Y.H. Factors Influencing Bacterial Adhesion; An, Y.H., Friedman, R.J., Eds.; Humana Press: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]

Ziebuhr, W.; Krimmer, V.; Rachid, S.; Lossner, I.; Gotz, F.; Hacker, J. A novel mechanism of phase variation of virulence in Staphylococcus epidermidis: Evidence for control of the polysaccharide intercellular adhesin synthesis by alternating insertion and excision of the insertion sequence element IS256. Mol. Microbiol. 1999, 32, 345–356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Heilmann, C.; Gerke, C.; Perdreau-Remington, F.; Gotz, F. Characterization of Tn917 insertion mutants of Staphylococcus epidermidis affected in biofilm formation. Infect. Immun. 1996, 64, 277–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Heilmann, C.; Schweitzer, O.; Gerke, C.; Vanittanakom, N.; Mack, D.; Gotz, F. Molecular basis of intercellular adhesion in the biofilm-forming Staphylococcus epidermidis. Mol. Microbiol. 1996, 20, 1083–1091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Mack, D.; Nedelmann, M.; Krokotsch, A.; Schwarzkopf, A.; Heesemann, J.; Laufs, R. Characterization of transposon mutants of biofilm-producing Staphylococcus epidermidis impaired in the accumulative phase of biofilm production: Genetic identification of a hexosamine-containing polysaccharide intercellular adhesin. Infect. Immun. 1994, 62, 3244–3253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Mack, D.; Fischer, W.; Krokotsch, A.; Leopold, K.; Hartmann, R.; Egge, H.; Laufs, R. The intercellular adhesin involved in biofilm accumulation of Staphylococcus epidermidis is a linear beta-1,6-linked glucosaminoglycan: Purification and structural analysis. J. Bacteriol. 1996, 178, 175–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

McKenney, D.; Hubner, J.; Muller, E.; Wang, Y.; Goldmann, D.A.; Pier, G.B. The ica locus of Staphylococcus epidermidis encodes production of the capsular polysaccharide/adhesin. Infect. Immun. 1998, 66, 4711–4720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Rupp, M.E.; Ulphani, J.S.; Fey, P.D.; Mack, D. Characterization of Staphylococcus epidermidis polysaccharide intercellular adhesin/hemagglutinin in the pathogenesis of intravascular catheter-associated infection in a rat model. Infect. Immun. 1999, 67, 2656–2659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Karchmer, A.; Gibbons, G.W. Infections of prosthetic heart valves and vascular grafts. In Infections Associated with Indwelling Medical Devices, 2nd ed.; Bisno, A.L., Waldvogel, F.A., Eds.; American Society for Microbiology: Washington, DC, USA, 2000; pp. 213–249. [Google Scholar]

Pibarot, P.; Dumesnil, J.G. Prosthetic heart valves: Selection of the optimal prosthesis and long-term management. Circulation 2009, 119, 1034–1048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Baddour, L.M.; Wilson, W.R.; Bayer, A.S.; Fowler, V.G., Jr.; Tleyjeh, I.M.; Rybak, M.J.; Barsic, B.; Lockhart, P.B.; Gewitz, M.H.; Levison, M.E.; et al. Infective Endocarditis in Adults: Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Therapy, and Management of Complications: A Scientific Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2015, 132, 1435–1486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Habib, G.; Lancellotti, P.; Antunes, M.J.; Bongiorni, M.G.; Casalta, J.P.; Del Zotti, F.; Dulgheru, R.; El Khoury, G.; Erba, P.A.; Iung, B.; et al. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of infective endocarditis: The Task Force for the Management of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS), the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Eur. Heart J. 2015, 36, 3075–3128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Cahill, T.J.; Prendergast, B.D. Infective endocarditis. Lancet 2016, 387, 882–893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Wang, A.; Athan, E.; Pappas, P.A.; Fowler, V.G., Jr.; Olaison, L.; Pare, C.; Almirante, B.; Munoz, P.; Rizzi, M.; Naber, C.; et al. Contemporary clinical profile and outcome of prosthetic valve endocarditis. JAMA 2007, 297, 1354–1361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Regueiro, A.; Linke, A.; Latib, A.; Ihlemann, N.; Urena, M.; Walther, T.; Husser, O.; Herrmann, H.C.; Nombela-Franco, L.; Cheema, A.N.; et al. Association Between Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement and Subsequent Infective Endocarditis and In-Hospital Death. JAMA 2016, 316, 1083–1092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Amat-Santos, I.J.; Messika-Zeitoun, D.; Eltchaninoff, H.; Kapadia, S.; Lerakis, S.; Cheema, A.N.; Gutierrez-Ibanes, E.; Munoz-Garcia, A.J.; Pan, M.; Webb, J.G.; et al. Infective endocarditis after transcatheter aortic valve implantation: Results from a large multicenter registry. Circulation 2015, 131, 1566–1574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Overman, P.R. Biofilm: A new view of plaque. J. Contemp. Dent. Pract. 2000, 1, 18–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Yang, J.; Yao, J.L.; Wu, Z.Q.; Zeng, D.L.; Zheng, L.Y.; Chen, D.; Guo, Z.D.; Peng, L. Current opinions on the mechanism, classification, imaging diagnosis and treatment of post-traumatic osteomyelitis. Chin. J. Traumatol. 2021, 24, 320–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Watters, C.; DeLeon, K.; Trivedi, U.; Griswold, J.A.; Lyte, M.; Hampel, K.J.; Wargo, M.J.; Rumbaugh, K.P. Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms perturb wound resolution and antibiotic tolerance in diabetic mice. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 2013, 202, 131–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Dowd, S.E.; Sun, Y.; Secor, P.R.; Rhoads, D.D.; Wolcott, B.M.; James, G.A.; Wolcott, R.D. Survey of bacterial diversity in chronic wounds using pyrosequencing, DGGE, and full ribosome shotgun sequencing. BMC Microbiol. 2008, 8, 43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Bowler, P.G.; Duerden, B.I.; Armstrong, D.G. Wound microbiology and associated approaches to wound management. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2001, 14, 244–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Donlan, R.M.; Costerton, J.W. Biofilms: Survival mechanisms of clinically relevant microorganisms. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2002, 15, 167–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Khatoon, Z.; McTiernan, C.D.; Suuronen, E.J.; Mah, T.F.; Alarcon, E.I. Bacterial biofilm formation on implantable devices and approaches to its treatment and prevention. Heliyon 2018, 4, e01067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

VanEpps, J.S.; Younger, J.G. Implantable Device-Related Infection. Shock 2016, 46, 597–608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Pandey, V.K.; Srivastava, K.R.; Ajmal, G.; Thakur, V.K.; Gupta, V.K.; Upadhyay, S.N.; Mishra, P.K. Differential Susceptibility of Catheter Biomaterials to Biofilm-Associated Infections and Their Remedy by Drug-Encapsulated Eudragit RL100 Nanoparticles. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 5110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Maki, D.G.; Cobb, L.; Garman, J.K.; Shapiro, J.M.; Ringer, M.; Helgerson, R.B. An attachable silver-impregnated cuff for prevention of infection with central venous catheters: A prospective randomized multicenter trial. Am. J. Med. 1988, 85, 307–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Maki, D.G.; Weise, C.E.; Sarafin, H.W. A semiquantitative culture method for identifying intravenous-catheter-related infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 1977, 296, 1305–1309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Chu, V.H.; Miro, J.M.; Hoen, B.; Cabell, C.H.; Pappas, P.A.; Jones, P.; Stryjewski, M.E.; Anguera, I.; Braun, S.; Munoz, P.; et al. Coagulase-negative staphylococcal prosthetic valve endocarditis—A contemporary update based on the International Collaboration on Endocarditis: Prospective cohort study. Heart 2009, 95, 570–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Rivas, P.; Alonso, J.; Moya, J.; de Gorgolas, M.; Martinell, J.; Fernandez Guerrero, M.L. The impact of hospital-acquired infections on the microbial etiology and prognosis of late-onset prosthetic valve endocarditis. Chest 2005, 128, 764–771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Karchmer, A.W.; Longworth, D.L. Infections of intracardiac devices. Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am. 2002, 16, 477–505, xii. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Hill, E.E.; Herregods, M.C.; Vanderschueren, S.; Claus, P.; Peetermans, W.E.; Herijgers, P. Management of prosthetic valve infective endocarditis. Am. J. Cardiol. 2008, 101, 1174–1178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Lee, J.H.; Burner, K.D.; Fealey, M.E.; Edwards, W.D.; Tazelaar, H.D.; Orszulak, T.A.; Wright, A.J.; Baddour, L.M. Prosthetic valve endocarditis: Clinicopathological correlates in 122 surgical specimens from 116 patients (1985–2004). Cardiovasc. Pathol. 2011, 20, 26–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Raad, I.; Costerton, W.; Sabharwal, U.; Sacilowski, M.; Anaissie, E.; Bodey, G.P. Ultrastructural analysis of indwelling vascular catheters: A quantitative relationship between luminal colonization and duration of placement. J. Infect. Dis. 1993, 168, 400–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Cangui-Panchi, S.P.; Nacato-Toapanta, A.L.; Enriquez-Martinez, L.J.; Reyes, J.; Garzon-Chavez, D.; Machado, A. Biofilm-forming microorganisms causing hospital-acquired infections from intravenous catheter: A systematic review. Curr. Res. Microb. Sci. 2022, 3, 100175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Slobbe, L.; El Barzouhi, A.; Boersma, E.; Rijnders, B.J. Comparison of the roll plate method to the sonication method to diagnose catheter colonization and bacteremia in patients with long-term tunnelled catheters: A randomized prospective study. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2009, 47, 885–888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Dart, J.K.G. Contact lens and prosthesis infections. In Duane’s Foundations of Clinical Ophthalmology; Tasman, W., Jaeger, E.A., Eds.; Lippincott-Raven: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1996; pp. 1–30. [Google Scholar]

Konduri, R.; Saiabhilash, C.R.; Shivaji, S. Biofilm-Forming Potential of Ocular Fluid Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis on Ex Vivo Human Corneas from Attachment to Dispersal Phase. Microorganisms 2021, 9, 1124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Miller, M.J.; Ahearn, D.G. Adherence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to hydrophilic contact lenses and other substrata. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1987, 25, 1392–1397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]